Ettore Bernardi
@inrim.it
Quantum Metrology
INRIM
RESEARCH INTERESTS
Quantum Thermodynamics
Quantum Computation
Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers
Scopus Publications
Scopus Publications
Greta Andrini, Gabriele Zanelli, Sviatoslav Ditalia Tchernij, Emilio Corte, Elena Nieto Hernández, Alessio Verna, Matteo Cocuzza, Ettore Bernardi, Salvatore Virzì, Paolo Traina,et al.
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
AbstractRecent demonstrations of optically active telecom emitters show that silicon is a compelling candidate for solid-state quantum photonic platforms. In particular, the fabrication of a defect known as the G center has been shown in carbon-rich silicon upon conventional thermal annealing. However, the high-yield controlled fabrication of these emitters at the wafer scale still requires the identification of a suitable thermodynamic pathway enabling its activation following ion implantation. Here we demonstrate the activation of G centers in high-purity silicon substrates upon nanosecond pulsed laser annealing. The proposed method enables non-invasive, localized activation of G centers by the supply of short non-stationary pulses, thus overcoming the limitations of conventional rapid thermal annealing related to the structural metastability of the emitters. A finite-element analysis highlights the strong non-stationarity of the technique, offering radically different defect-engineering capabilities with respect to conventional longer thermal treatments, paving the way to the direct and controlled fabrication of emitters embedded in integrated photonic circuits and waveguides.
Andrea Alessio, Ettore Bernardi, Ekaterina Moreva, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, Marco Genovese, and Marco Truccato
MDPI AG
The present paper reports on a Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis of the experimental situation corresponding to the measurement of the temperature variation in a single cell plated on bulk diamond by means of optical techniques. Starting from previous experimental results, we have determined—in a uniform power density approximation and under steady-state conditions—the total heat power that has to be dissipated by a single cell plated on a glassy substrate in order to induce the typical maximum temperature increase ΔTglass=1 K. While keeping all of the other parameters constant, the glassy substrate has been replaced by a diamond plate. The FEM analysis shows that, in this case, the maximum temperature increase is expected at the diamond/cell interface and is as small as ΔTdiam=4.6×10−4 K. We have also calculated the typical decay time in the transient scenario, which resulted in τ≈ 250 μs. By comparing these results with the state-of-the-art sensitivity values, we prove that the potential advantages of a longer coherence time, better spectral properties, and the use of special field alignments do not justify the use of diamond substrates in their bulk form.
Giulia Petrini, Giulia Tomagra, Ettore Bernardi, Ekaterina Moreva, Paolo Traina, Andrea Marcantoni, Federico Picollo, Klaudia Kvaková, Petr Cígler, Ivo PietroDegiovanni,et al.
Wiley
Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2202014 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202202014 In the originally published article, one affiliation for P. Cígler is missing. Please find the correct affiliations below: G. Petrini, E. Bernardi, E. Moreva, P. Traina, I. P. Degiovanni, M. Genovese Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica Strada delle cacce 91, Torino 10135, Italy E-mail: m.genovese@inrim.it G. Petrini, F. Picollo Physics Department, University of Torino via P. Giuria 1, Torino 10125, Italy G. Petrini, G. Tomagra, A. Marcantoni, V. Carabelli Department of Drug and Science Technology, University of Torino Corso Raffaello 30, Torino 10125, Italy G. Tomagra, A. Marcantoni, V. Carabelli NIS Inter-departmental Centre via G. Quarello 15, Torino 10135, Italy F. Picollo, I. P. Degiovanni, M. Genovese Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) Sez. Torino via P. Giuria 1, Torino 10125, Italy
Emilio Corte, Greta Andrini, Elena Nieto Hernández, Vanna Pugliese, Ângelo Costa, Goele Magchiels, Janni Moens, Shandirai Malven Tunhuma, Renan Villarreal, Lino M. C. Pereira,et al.
American Chemical Society (ACS)
We provide the first systematic characterization of the structural and photoluminescence properties of optically active defect centers fabricated upon implantation of 30-100 keV Mg+ ions in artificial diamond. The structural configurations of Mg-related defects were studied by the emission channeling technique for 27Mg implantations performed both at room-temperature and 800 °C, which allowed the identification of a major fraction of Mg atoms (~30-42%) in sites which are compatible with the split-vacancy structure of the MgV complex. A smaller fraction of Mg atoms (~13-17%) was found on substitutional sites. The photoluminescence emission was investigated both at the ensemble and individual defect level in a temperature range comprised between 5 K and 300 K, offering a detailed picture of the MgV-related emission properties and revealing the occurrence of previously unreported spectral features. The optical excitability of the MgV center was also studied as a function of the optical excitation wavelength enabling to identify the optimal conditions for photostable and intense emission. The results are discussed in the context of the preliminary experimental data and the theoretical models available in the literature, with appealing perspectives for the utilization of the tunable properties of the MgV center for quantum information processing applications. * Corresponding authors: jacopo.forneris@unito.it, uwahl@ctn.tecnico.ulisboa.pt § These authors contributed equally to the work.
G. Andrini, G. Zanelli, S. Ditalia Tchernij, E. Corte, E. Nieto Hernandez, A. Verna, M. Cocuzza, E. Bernardi, S. Virzi, P. Traina,et al.
IEEE
The recent demonstration of optically active telecom emitters in silicon has paved the way for realizing industrial-scale silicon-based solid-state quantum photonic platforms. The scientific community has been pursuing the implementation of novel single-photon devices for quantum technology applications by introducing extrinsic impurities inside the silicon lattice upon ion implantation. Here we report the optical characterization through single-photon microscopy of intrinsic W centers in high-purity silicon substrates upon carbon implantation and subsequent rapid thermal annealing. The photoluminescence investigation of their emission properties at cryogenic temperatures allowed us to identify the effects of the post-implantation thermal treatment in the formation of telecom quantum emitters based on interstitial silicon clusters upon the introduction of an extrinsic atomic species.
Giulia Petrini, Giulia Tomagra, Ettore Bernardi, Ekaterina Moreva, Paolo Traina, Andrea Marcantoni, Federico Picollo, Klaudia Kvaková, Petr Cígler, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni,et al.
Wiley
Temperature is one of the most relevant parameters for the regulation of intracellular processes. Measuring localized subcellular temperature gradients is fundamental for a deeper understanding of cell function, such as the genesis of action potentials, and cell metabolism. Notwithstanding several proposed techniques, at the moment detection of temperature fluctuations at the subcellular level still represents an ongoing challenge. Here, for the first time, temperature variations (1 °C) associated with potentiation and inhibition of neuronal firing is detected, by exploiting a nanoscale thermometer based on optically detected magnetic resonance in nanodiamonds. The results demonstrate that nitrogen-vacancy centers in nanodiamonds provide a tool for assessing various levels of neuronal spiking activity, since they are suitable for monitoring different temperature variations, respectively, associated with the spontaneous firing of hippocampal neurons, the disinhibition of GABAergic transmission and the silencing of the network. Conjugated with the high sensitivity of this technique (in perspective sensitive to < 0.1 °C variations), nanodiamonds pave the way to a systematic study of the generation of localized temperature gradients under physiological and pathological conditions. Furthermore, they prompt further studies explaining in detail the physiological mechanism originating this effect.
Chiara Marletto, Vlatko Vedral, Laura T. Knoll, Fabrizio Piacentini, Ettore Bernardi, Enrico Rebufello, Alessio Avella, Marco Gramegna, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, and Marco Genovese
American Physical Society (APS)
How irreversibility arises in a universe with time-reversal symmetric laws is a central problem in physics. In this Letter, we discuss a radically different take on the emergence of irreversibility, adopting the recently proposed constructor theory framework. Irreversibility is expressed as the requirement that a task is possible, while its inverse is not. We prove the compatibility of such irreversibility with quantum theory's time-reversal symmetric laws, using a dynamical model based on the universal quantum homogenizer. We also test the physical realizability of this model by means of an experimental demonstration with high-quality single-photon qubits.
Giulia Petrini, Giulia Tomagra, Ettore Bernardi, Ekaterina Moreva, Paolo Traina, Andrea Marcantoni, Federico Picollo, Paolo Olivero, Klaudia Kvakova, Petr Cigler,et al.
IEEE
The growing interest in understanding the complex mechanisms that regulate biological processes has prompted the study and the improvement of quantum sensors, potentially capable of detecting a wide class of physical quantities of biological interest. Among the various sensors proposed for biological applications, nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in artificial diamond have emerged as a truly promising solution primarily thanks to their excellent bio-compatibility. Such NV sensors can be synthesized of nanometer size. The nanodiamonds can be inserted inside cells and, if properly functionalized, they can be targeted to organelles, such as mitochondria, or ion channels. In addition to the advantages regarding their chemical and structural composition, the NV sensors have distinguished themselves thanks to their sensitivity respect different physical quantity, such as magnetic and electric fields, temperatures and pressures variations. Although the sensitivity achieved by the NV quantum sensors is not yet sufficient to detect the very weak electromagnetic fields generated by biological processes, the thermal variation generated at the cellular level seem at the moment a more attractive field of application. Temperature is an important parameter for the regulation of intracellular processes and its detection is fundamental for a more complete understanding of them. Cellular activity and metabolism can affect the local temperature in cells and pathological conditions such as cancer, Parkinson and Alzherimer's disease can alter it. In this sense, local temperature monitoring within cells is also important for clinical application. Here we will present our experimental setup dedicated to local temperature measurement in neuronal cell cultures. The measurement technique is based on optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) with the NV centers in the nanodiamonds, suitably engineered to be sensitive and at the same time bio-compatible. We will demonstrate a proof of principle experiment in which we measure the local temperature variation in cultured hippocampal neurons. The temperature sensitivity is 3 K/Hzl/2. In addition we will show how the nanodiamonds with a size of around 200 nm are internalized by the neurons.
Giulia Petrini, Ekaterina Moreva, Ettore Bernardi, Paolo Traina, Giulia Tomagra, Valentina Carabelli, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, and Marco Genovese
Wiley
Ettore Bernardi, Ekaterina Moreva, Paolo Traina, Giulia Petrini, Sviatoslav Ditalia Tchernij, Jacopo Forneris, Željko Pastuović, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, Paolo Olivero, and Marco Genovese
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
AbstractWe present an innovative experimental set-up that uses Nitrogen-Vacancy centres in diamonds to measure magnetic fields with the sensitivity of$\\eta =68\\pm 3~\\mathrm{nT}/\\sqrt{\\mathrm{Hz}}$η=68±3nT/Hzat demonstrated (sub)cellular scale. The presented method of magnetic sensing, utilizing a lock-in based ODMR technique for the optical detection of microwave-driven spin resonances induced in NV centers, is characterized by the excellent magnetic sensitivity at such small scale and the full biocompatibility. The cellular scale is obtained using a NV-rich sensing layer of 15 nm thickness alongzaxis and a focused laser spot of$(10 \\times 10)~\\mu\\mathrm{m}^{2}$(10×10)μm2inx-yplane. The biocompatibility derives from an accurate choice of the applied optical power. For this regard, we also report how the magnetic sensitivity changes for different applied laser power and discuss the limits of the sensitivity sustainable with biosystem at such small volume scale. As such, this method offers a whole range of research possibilities for biosciences.
E. Moreva, E. Bernardi, P. Traina, G. Petrini, S. Ditalia Tchernij, J. Forneris, F. Picollo, V. Pugliese, A. Sosso, Z. Pastuovic,et al.
IEEE
Nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond allow measurement of magnetic fields at nanoscale. The working principle is based on the measurement of a NV center resonance frequency shift, detected by monitoring the center's photoluminescence. Here we present a technique based on lock-in detection and simultaneous excitation of the three peaks corresponding to hyperfine interaction between the NV center and the 14N nucleus.
E. Moreva, E. Bernardi, P. Traina, A. Sosso, S. Ditalia Tchernij, J. Forneris, F. Picollo, G. Brida, Ž. Pastuović, I. P. Degiovanni,et al.
American Physical Society (APS)
Nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond allow measurement of environment properties such as temperature, magnetic and electric fields at nanoscale level, of utmost relevance for several research fields, ranging from nanotechnologies to bio-sensing. The working principle is based on the measurement of the resonance frequency shift of a single nitrogen-vacancy center (or an ensemble of them), usually detected by by monitoring the center photoluminescence emission intensity. Albeit several schemes have already been proposed, the search for the simplest and most effective one is of key relevance for real applications. Here we present a new continuous-wave lock-in based technique able to reach unprecedented sensitivity in temperature measurement at micro/nanoscale volumes (4.8 mK/Hz$^{1/2}$ in $\\mu$m$^3$). Furthermore, the present method has the advantage of being insensitive to the enviromental magnetic noise, that in general introduces a bias in the temperature measurement.
M Radtke, E Bernardi, A Slablab, R Nelz, and E Neu
IOP Publishing
Powered by the mutual developments in instrumentation, materials andtheoretical descriptions, sensing and imaging capabilities of quantum emitters insolids have significantly increased in the past two decades. Quantum emitters insolids, whose properties resemble those of atoms and ions, provide alternative waysto probing natural and artificial nanoscopic systems with minimum disturbance andultimate spatial resolution. Among those emerging quantum emitters, the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) color center in diamond is an outstanding example due to its intrinsicproperties at room temperature (highly-luminescent, photo-stable, biocompatible,highly-coherent spin states). This review article summarizes recent advances andachievements in using NV centers within nano- and single crystal diamonds in sensingand imaging. We also highlight prevalent challenges and material aspects for differenttypes of diamond and outline the main parameters to consider when using color centersas sensors. As a novel sensing resource, we highlight the properties of NV centersas light emitting electrical dipoles and their coupling to other nanoscale dipoles e.g.graphene.
Giulia Tomagra, Alfio Battiato, Ettore Bernardi, Alberto Pasquarelli, Emilio Carbone, Paolo Olivero, Valentina Carabelli, and Federico Picollo
Springer International Publishing
In the present work, we report on the fabrication of a diamond-based device targeted to the detection of quantal neurotransmitter release. We have developed Multi-electrode Arrays with 16 independent graphitic channels fabricated by means of Deep Ion Beam Lithography (DIBL). These devices are capable of detecting the in vitro exocytotic event from neurosecretory cells, while overcoming several critical limitations of standard amperometric techniques.
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MDPI AG
Individual, luminescent point defects in solids, so-called color centers, are atomic-sized quantum systems enabling sensing and imaging with nanoscale spatial resolution. In this overview, we introduce nanoscale sensing based on individual nitrogen vacancy (NV) centers in diamond. We discuss two central challenges of the field: first, the creation of highly-coherent, shallow NV centers less than 10 nm below the surface of a single-crystal diamond; second, the fabrication of tip-like photonic nanostructures that enable efficient fluorescence collection and can be used for scanning probe imaging based on color centers with nanoscale resolution.
Valentina Carabelli, Andrea Marcantoni, Federico Picollo, Alfio Battiato, Ettore Bernardi, Alberto Pasquarelli, Paolo Olivero, and Emilio Carbone
American Chemical Society (ACS)
High biocompatibility, outstanding electrochemical responsiveness, inertness, and transparency make diamond-based multiarrays (DBMs) first-rate biosensors for in vitro detection of electrochemical and electrical signals from excitable cells together, with potential for in vivo applications as neural interfaces and prostheses. Here, we will review the electrochemical and physical properties of various DBMs and how these devices have been employed for recording released neurotransmitter molecules and all-or-none action potentials from living cells. Specifically, we will overview how DBMs can resolve localized exocytotic events from subcellular compartments using high-density microelectrode arrays (MEAs), or monitoring oxidizable neurotransmitter release from populations of cells in culture and tissue slices using low-density MEAs. Interfacing DBMs with excitable cells is currently leading to the promising opportunity of recording electrical signals as well as creating neuronal interfaces through the same device. Given the recent increasingly growing development of newly available DBMs of various geometries to monitor electrical activity and neurotransmitter release in a variety of excitable and neuronal tissues, the discussion will be limited to planar DBMs.
A. Battiato, M. Lorusso, E. Bernardi, F. Picollo, F. Bosia, D. Ugues, A. Zelferino, A. Damin, J. Baima, N.M. Pugno,et al.
Elsevier BV
Abstract A combined experimental and numerical study on the variation of the elastic properties of defective single-crystal diamond is presented for the first time, by comparing nano-indentation measurements on MeV-ion-implanted samples with multi-scale modeling consisting of both ab initio atomistic calculations and meso-scale Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations. It is found that by locally introducing defects in the 2 × 10 18 –5 × 10 21 cm −3 density range, a significant reduction of Young’s modulus, as well as of density, can be induced in the diamond crystal structure without incurring in the graphitization of the material. Ab initio atomistic simulations confirm the experimental findings with a good degree of confidence. FEM simulations are further employed to verify the consistency of measured deformations with a stiffness reduction, and to derive strain and stress levels in the implanted region. Combining these experimental and numerical results, we also provide insight into the mechanism responsible for the depth dependence of the graphitization threshold in diamond. This work prospects the possibility of achieving accurate tunability of the mechanical properties of single-crystal diamond through defect engineering, with significant technological applications, e.g. the fabrication and control of the resonant frequency of diamond-based micromechanical resonators.
Federico Picollo, Alfio Battiato, Ettore Bernardi, Andrea Marcantoni, Alberto Pasquarelli, Emilio Carbone, Paolo Olivero, and Valentina Carabelli
American Chemical Society (ACS)
A microstructured graphitic 4 × 4 multielectrode array was embedded in a single-crystal diamond substrate (4 × 4 μG-SCD MEA) for real-time monitoring of exocytotic events from cultured chromaffin cells and adrenal slices. The current approach relies on the development of a parallel ion beam lithographic technique, which assures the time-effective fabrication of extended arrays with reproducible electrode dimensions. The reported device is suitable for performing amperometric and voltammetric recordings with high sensitivity and temporal resolution, by simultaneously acquiring data from 16 rectangularly shaped microelectrodes (20 × 3.5 μm(2)) separated by 200 μm gaps. Taking advantage of the array geometry we addressed the following specific issues: (i) detect both the spontaneous and KCl-evoked secretion simultaneously from several chromaffin cells directly cultured on the device surface, (ii) resolve the waveform of different subsets of exocytotic events, and (iii) monitoring quantal secretory events from thin slices of the adrenal gland. The frequency of spontaneous release was low (0.12 and 0.3 Hz, respectively, for adrenal slices and cultured cells) and increased up to 0.9 Hz after stimulation with 30 mM KCl in cultured cells. The spike amplitude as well as rise and decay time were comparable with those measured by carbon fiber microelectrodes and allowed to identify three different subsets of secretory events associated with "full fusion" events, "kiss-and-run" and "kiss-and-stay" exocytosis, confirming that the device has adequate sensitivity and time resolution for real-time recordings. The device offers the significant advantage of shortening the time to collect data by allowing simultaneous recordings from cell populations either in primary cell cultures or in intact tissues.
M. Mohr, F. Picollo, A. Battiato, E. Bernardi, J. Forneris, A. Tengattini, E. Enrico, L. Boarino, F. Bosia, H.-J. Fecht,et al.
Elsevier BV
Abstract Due to their outstanding mechanical properties, diamond and diamond-like materials find significant technological applications ranging from well-established industrial fields (cutting tools, coatings, etc.) to more advanced mechanical devices as micro- and nano-electromechanical systems. The use of energetic ions is a powerful and versatile tool to fabricate three-dimensional micro-mechanical structures. In this context, it is of paramount importance to have an accurate knowledge of the effects of ion-induced structural damage on the mechanical properties of this material, primarily to predict potential undesired side-effects of the ion implantation process, and possibly to tailor the desired mechanical properties of the fabricated devices. We present an Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) characterization of free-standing cantilevers in single-crystal diamond obtained by a FIB-assisted lift-off technique, which allows the determination of the Young's modulus of the diamond crystal after the MeV ion irradiation process concurrent to the fabrication of the microstructures, and subsequent thermal annealing. The AFM measurements were performed with the beam-bending technique and show that the thermal annealing process allows for an effective recovery of the mechanical properties of the pristine crystal.
Federico Picollo, Alfio Battiato, Ettore Bernardi, Marilena Plaitano, Claudio Franchino, Sara Gosso, Alberto Pasquarelli, Emilio Carbone, Paolo Olivero, and Valentina Carabelli
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
We report on the ion beam fabrication of all-carbon multi electrode arrays (MEAs) based on 16 graphitic micro-channels embedded in single-crystal diamond (SCD) substrates. The fabricated SCD-MEAs are systematically employed for the in vitro simultaneous amperometric detection of the secretory activity from populations of chromaffin cells, demonstrating a new sensing approach with respect to standard techniques. The biochemical stability and biocompatibility of the SCD-based device combined with the parallel recording of multi-electrodes array allow: i) a significant time saving in data collection during drug screening and/or pharmacological tests over a large number of cells, ii) the possibility of comparing altered cell functionality among cell populations, and iii) the repeatition of acquisition runs over many cycles with a fully non-toxic and chemically robust bio-sensitive substrate.
F. Picollo, A. Battiato, E. Bernardi, L. Boarino, E. Enrico, J. Forneris, D. Gatto Monticone, and P. Olivero
Elsevier BV
Abstract In the present work we report about a parallel-processing ion beam fabrication technique whereby high-density sub-superficial graphitic microstructures can be created in diamond. Ion beam implantation is an effective tool for the structural modification of diamond: in particular ion-damaged diamond can be converted into graphite, therefore obtaining an electrically conductive phase embedded in an optically transparent and highly insulating matrix. The proposed fabrication process consists in the combination of Deep Ion Beam Lithography (DIBL) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling. FIB micromachining is employed to define micro-apertures in the contact masks consisting of thin (
E. Bernardi, A. Battiato, P. Olivero, F. Picollo, and E. Vittone
AIP Publishing
In this work, we present an investigation by Kelvin Probe Microscopy (KPM) of buried graphitic microchannels fabricated in single-crystal diamond by direct MeV ion microbeam writing. Metal deposition of variable-thickness masks was adopted to implant channels with emerging endpoints and high temperature annealing was performed in order to induce the graphitization of the highly-damaged buried region. When an electrical current was flowing through the biased buried channel, the structure was clearly evidenced by KPM maps of the electrical potential of the surface region overlying the channel at increasing distances from the grounded electrode. The KPM profiling shows regions of opposite contrast located at different distances from the endpoints of the channel. This effect is attributed to the different electrical conduction properties of the surface and of the buried graphitic layer. The model adopted to interpret these KPM maps and profiles proved to be suitable for the electronic characterization of buried conductive channels, providing a non-invasive method to measure the local resistivity with a micrometer resolution. The results demonstrate the potential of the technique as a powerful diagnostic tool to monitor the functionality of all-carbon graphite/diamond devices to be fabricated by MeV ion beam lithography.
A. Vitale, A. Pollicino, E. Bernardi, and R. Bongiovanni
Elsevier BV
Abstract Oxidized silicon wafers were functionalized in mild conditions using alkoxysilanes containing perfluoropolyether chains: the reaction was monitored by FTIR and very thin fluorinated films were formed. After the treatment, the surface tension of the wafers decreased dramatically (from 43 mN/m for the neat wafer to 21–13 mN/m depending on the conditions of the silanization process), high repellency toward polar and apolar media was achieved. The composition of the fluorinated coatings was investigated in details by XPS spectroscopy.
Monica Boffito, Ettore Bernardi, Susanna Sartori, Gianluca Ciardelli, and Maria Paola Sassi
Wiley
Biomaterials should be mechanically tested at both the nanoscale and macroscale under conditions simulating their working state, either in vitro or in vivo, to confirm their applicability in tissue engineering applications. In this article, polyester-urethane-based films and porous scaffolds produced by hot pressing and thermally induced phase separation respectively, were mechanically characterized at both the macroscale and nanoscale by tensile tests and indentation-type atomic force microscopy. All tests were conducted in wet state with the final aim of simulating scaffold real operating conditions. The films showed two distinct Young Moduli populations, which can be ascribed to polyurethane hard and soft segments. In the scaffold, the application of a thermal cooling gradient during phase separation was responsible for a nanoscale polymer chain organization in a preferred direction. At the macroscale, the porous matrices showed a Young Modulus of about 1.5 MPa in dry condition and 0.3 MPa in wet state. The combination of nanoscale and macroscale values as well as the aligned structure are in accordance with stiffness and structure required for scaffolds used for the regeneration of soft tissues such as muscles.