Nazlida Muhamad

@psu.edu.sa

Associate Professor, Marketing Department / College of Business Administration
Prince Sultan University

RESEARCH, TEACHING, or OTHER INTERESTS

Marketing, General Decision Sciences, Cultural Studies, Religious studies
35

Scopus Publications

1977

Scholar Citations

21

Scholar h-index

31

Scholar i10-index

Scopus Publications

  • Entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and exploitation in emerging economies
    Saleha Azam, Sajjad Hussain, Nazlida Muhamad, Hamza Azam
    Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 2026
    This study explores the mechanism of opportunity recognition and exploitation in entrepreneurial context within developing countries by specifically focusing on cognitive, contextual and social factors. Cross-sectional data has been collected from 299 entrepreneurs affiliated to private and public incubators across Pakistan. Based on Resource-Based Theory (RBT) and Social Capital Theory (SCT), the study examines the influence of cognitive, social and contextual factors on the successful exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunity. Opportunity recognition has emerged as an important mediating factor between cognitive factors, contextual factors and opportunity exploitation. Social intelligence and social capital are found to be significant moderators to enhance the entrepreneurial outcomes in resource-constrained and volatile economies. Entrepreneurial Opportunity Recognition (EOR) has emerged as an important mediating factor between cognitive factors such as Entrepreneurial Self-Cognition (ESC), Entrepreneurial Alertness (EA), and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) and Entrepreneurial Opportunity Exploitation (EOE). The research’s contribution to the literature is that it incorporates cognitive, contextual, and social constructs into a single empirical model specifically designed to operate within the environment of emerging economies when it comes to entrepreneurship. This paper distinguishes itself from previous literature in that it finds interdependencies between these factors and proposes an interdependent moderated-mediation model that identifies the challenges and enablers that are unique to developing countries such as Pakistan. The findings offer actionable insights into fostering entrepreneurship through policy making, training and development that enhance cognitive and social skills. Strengthening social capital and intelligence can amplify entrepreneurial success and contribute to economic development within emerging economies.
  • Self-concept, emotional value and motivation in intentions to travel abroad: a cross-country study
    Nazlida Muhamad, Shahidul Islam, Bronwyn P. Wood, Zulfiqar Ali Jumani
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2026
    Purpose While self-concept theory has been widely applied in tourism studies, its role in explaining outbound travel intentions among Muslim tourists remains underexplored. This study aims to investigate how self-expression (SEP), social comparison of opinions (SCO), change-seeking (CHS) and novelty-seeking (NOS) influence outbound travel intentions, emphasizing the mediating roles of emotional values and travel motivations (push and pull factors). Cross-country differences between tourists from Brunei Darussalam and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are also examined. Design/methodology/approach Anchored in the stimulus–organism–response (S–O–R) framework, a research model was tested using data from 538 Muslim tourists (Brunei: 304; UAE: 234). Covariance-based structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Findings SEP, SCO, CHS and NOS have a significant impact on emotional values and travel motivations, which, in turn, strengthen outbound travel intentions. Notably, SEP does not significantly influence pull motivation. Cross-cultural differences observed: Emirati tourists are more driven by pull factors, whereas push factors have a greater influence on Bruneian tourists. Originality/value This study advances self-concept theory by integrating SEP, SCO, CHS and NOS into the S–O–R framework, offering novel insights into the psychological drivers of outbound travel intentions among Muslim tourists. The findings highlight culturally specific patterns, providing both theoretical contributions and practical guidance for developing culturally adaptive tourism marketing strategies.
  • Resilience and adaptability in food sustainability
    Hamza Azam, Nazlida Muhamad, Mohamed Syazwan Ab Talib, Wardah Hakimah binti Haji Sumardi
    Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 2025
  • Halal certification of marketing mix focusing on cosmetics
    Mohammad Mominul Islam, Mohamed Syazwan Ab Talib, Nazlida Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2025
    Purpose Halal certification is predominantly linked with the product and its production process. However, certifying price, place and promotion (3Ps) has not received enough attention theoretically and empirically. Against this backdrop, this study aims to unravel the halal certification of the marketing mix in Bangladesh’s cosmetics industry. Design/methodology/approach Fourteen mid and top executives from 12 national, international and multinational cosmetic companies were interviewed from November 2023 to January 2024. The data were analyzed using ATLAS.ti 2024 to showcase content, concept, sentiment, correlation, network and thematic analysis, exploring respondents’ perceptions aligned with Islamic principles. Findings The respondents held highly negative perceptions about certifying halal pricing, followed by promotion and supply chain or place. The mixed perceptions illustrate that certifying the halal product is easier than certifying the halal price, promotion and place (3Ps). Conditional and positive perceptions can foster halal certification of the entire marketing mix, while negative perceptions seem to be a threat to the halal cosmetics industry. Practical implications The findings have implications for academic, managerial and policymaking issues, benefiting halal cosmetics consumers. Based on this empirical study, halal stakeholders can determine the likelihood of certifying the entire marketing mix. Originality/value This study proposes certifying the halal status of the marketing mix against the backdrop of the scarcity of theoretical and practical premises.
  • The Transformative Prospects of AI-Powered Virtual Influencers in Digital Consumer Engagement and Marketing Strategies
    Muhammad Abdus Salam, Vai Shiem Leong, Nazlida Muhamad
    Cases on Social Media Marketing Engagement Tactics, 2025
    The rise of artificial intelligence-facilitated technologies in the business ecosystems is driving the dynamic adoption of technology to retain the digital consumers. Marketing practices have been greatly influenced by these advanced technologies. However, more recently, the emergence of AI-powered virtual influencers (VIs) is transforming the marketing and consumer engagement prospects, blurring the lines between reality and digital creation. AI-powered VIs are not just a trend; they represent a transformational shift in how brands can interact, communicate, and engage digital consumers. Their importance lies in their flexibility, consistency, cost-efficiency, and deeper integration with the emerging tech ecosystems. Therefore, outlining the differences between virtual influencers and traditional social media influencers, this study demonstrates how the AI-powered VIs are influencing the conventional marketing practices, offering an innovative approach for consumer engagement, brand communications, endorsements, and promotions.
  • Embracing Cross-Border Digital Payment in Southeast Asia: Current Development and Future Outlook: Clusters of Future Studies: Corporate Foresight; Past and Futures; Technological Trends
    Abu Amar Fauzi, Lufi Yuwana Mursita, Nazlida Muhamad, Margaret L. Sheng
    Future of Economy in Asia Geopolitical Diplomacy Technological Revolutions and Sustainable Pathways, 2025
  • Role of Islamic values and financial attitudes on setting financial goals: an exploratory study of Bruneian Muslims
    Hasnol Salleh, Nazlida Muhammad, Lutfi Abdul Razak, M. Hairul Azrin Hj Besar, Dk Noor Hasharina Pg Hj Hassan
    Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, 2025
    Purpose This study aims to ascertain how Muslims in Brunei perceive the role of Islam in creating financial goals. More specifically, it explores the role of Islamic values and financial attitudes in financial goal-setting. Design/methodology/approach Given the exploratory nature, a qualitative methodology was used. Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 31 Bruneian Muslims and the data was analyzed using Initial Cording and Focused Coding. Findings The study offers two levels of insights when creating financial goals within an Islamic context. First, the macro-level findings links to Islamic values that include the rights (haqq) to one’s wealth and the role of seeking barakah (blessings), among others deemed important by interviewees. Second, the micro-level findings are financial attitudes that are grouped according to financial categories such as earning, savings and borrowing. Practical implications In the field of Islamic financial literacy, the findings highlight the need to incorporate Islamic values and financial attitudes in financial education contributing to an Islamic financial worldview. There are also implications to the practice of Islamic financial planning, with the potential for planners to facilitate their client’s financial worldview to be in line with Shariah. Originality/value Despite the interest in incorporating financial attitudes in Islamic finance, research on financial attitudes and financial goals are limited. It is contended that research on Islamic-centric financial goals notably those pertaining to one’s values are important as the strength of one’s intentions can be a driving force in achieving the desired outcome.
  • Could Ajka be the next frontier of halal? Halal food
    Mohammad Mominul Islam, Mohamed Syazwan Ab Talib, Nazlida Muhamad
    Innovative Ventures and Strategies in Islamic Business, 2024
    Halal and Tayyib have been extensively studied in halal food research, leaving gaps in the current body of knowledge. Against this backdrop, this chapter delves into the concept of Ajka within the context of Quranic teachings, primarily focusing on its significance in the Halal food industry and secondarily in other research domains of halal issues. It emphasizes that Ajka represents an enhanced version of Halal and Tayyib, incorporating spiritual elements and connecting various stakeholders in the halal business. Notably, thematic analyses result in the ‘RAI' (Rejection, Acceptance, and Improvement), ‘HAP' (Haram Avoidance Points), and ‘GAPP' (Green Products, Actions, Processors, and Processes) frameworks to address the Ajka food concept for both managerial and academic implications that can boost Halal food from organic and greener lenses.
  • National philosophy and religion on corporate social responsibility/public relations initiatives: a case study of Islamic influence in Brunei business system
    Vai Shiem Leong, Zeny Sarabia-Panol, Nazlida Muhamad
    Asian Journal of Business Ethics, 2024
  • Developing theoretical lenses for upstream halal businesses
    Mohammad Mominul Islam, Mohamed Syazwan Ab Talib, Nazlida Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2024
    Purpose This study aims to underline Islamic principles to the business theories for producers and policymakers and to explain halal marketing by value creation approach for halal stakeholders concerned with halal certification and its implementation. Design/methodology/approach This study applied inductive reasoning with the systematic literature review (SLR) of peer-reviewed published research papers, followed by the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses framework. Furthermore, the content analysis with ATLAS.ti 2022 helped to undergo concept and thematic analysis that show the theoretical lenses for the upstream halal businesses. Findings Among 360 papers, the SLR from 2012 to 2022 found 32 papers dealing with the halal theory–based studies on certification, standards, producers and policymakers and halal supply chains. Only seven studies consulted the resource-based view (RBV), a strategy theory and the institutional theory (IT) connected to halal. This study further underpinned qualitative Quranic verses to add to the current body of RBV and IT, resulting in halal sustainable competitive advantage and halal certification institutionalization. Practical implications Islamic principles can guide halal stakeholders to create and manage valuable resources through halal certification. Also, academics can synthesize conventional theories as value-creation mechanisms compliant with Islamic codes. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this novel study was the first to contribute to the current body of RBV and IT with Islamic principles. It has primarily concentrated on the upstream halal businesses to create and manage halal value, certification and competitive advantages for halal marketing.
  • Islamic Marketing and Circular Economy to Foster Sustainability of Product Life Cycle Enhancement
    Mohammad Mominul Islam, Mohamed Syazwan Ab Talib, Nazlida Muhamad
    Contributions to Management Science, 2024
  • A review of psychological resilience: paving the path for sustainable consumption
    Hamza Azam, Nazlida Muhamad, Mohamad Syazwan Ab Talib
    Cogent Business and Management, 2024
  • Co-creation Practices and Service Outcomes: A Transformative Health Service Framework
    Shahidul Islam, Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong, Wardah Hakimah Sumardi
    Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 2024
  • Customer perceived quality of life in provider value cocreation: The mediating role of customer value cocreation and the moderating role of customer emotions
    Shahidul Islam, Nazlida Muhamad, Md Rokonuzzaman, Pramod Iyer, Vai Shiem Leong
    Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 2024
  • Development and validation of key antecedents of religious brand attitude: a cross-cultural quantitative analysis using smart PLS
    Zulfiqar Ali Jumani, Nazlida Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2023
  • Healthcare quality for Muslims: TCCM and TSR frameworks analyses
    Shahidul Islam, Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2023
  • Corporate image as an enabler of customer retention
    Vai Shiem Leong, Diyana Maslina Hj Ahady, Nazlida Muhamad
    International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, 2022
  • Customer-perceived service wellbeing in a transformative framework: Research propositions in the area of health services
    S. Islam, Nazlida Muhamad, Wardah Hakimah Sumardi
    International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 2022
  • Social comparison orientation and religious commitment influence on outbound travel intentions
    Nazlida Muhamad, Shahidul Islam, Vai Shiem Leong
    Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2022
  • Internal marketing: a review and future research agenda
    Fatima Saman Qaisar, Nazlida Muhamad
    Asia Pacific Business Review, 2021
  • Patient-centered communication: an extension of the HCAHPS survey
    Shahidul Islam, Nazlida Muhamad
    Benchmarking, 2020
  • Muslim millennials’ attitudes towards fashion advertising
    Muhammad Talha Salam, Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong
    International Journal of Advertising, 2019
  • Measuring religiosity among Muslim consumers: observations and recommendations
    Muhammad Talha Salam, Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2019
  • The role of religious motivation in an international consumer boycott
    Nazlida Muhamad, Munirah Khamarudin, Waida Irani Mohd Fauzi
    British Food Journal, 2019
  • Exploring muslim millennials’ perception and value placed on the concept of ‘halal’ in their tourism preferences and behaviours
    Talha Salam, Nazlida Muhamad, Mazuri Abd Ghani
    Routledge Handbook of Halal Hospitality and Islamic Tourism, 2019
  • Brunei halal tourism outlook
    Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong, Masairol Masri
    Routledge Handbook of Halal Hospitality and Islamic Tourism, 2019
  • Does the country of origin of a halal logo matter? The case of packaged food purchases
    Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong, Normalisa Md Isa
    Review of International Business and Strategy, 2017
  • Young consumer response to message framing in recycling advertisements
    International Journal of Economic Research, 2017
  • Consumer knowledge and religious rulings on products: Young Muslim consumer’s perspective
    Nazlida Muhamad, Vai Shiem Leong, Dick Mizerski
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2016
  • What motivate muslim consumer to patronage islamic based-retail store?
    International Review of Management and Marketing, 2016
  • The effects of following islam in decisions about taboo products
    Nazlida Muhamad, Dick Mizerski
    Psychology and Marketing, 2013
  • Fatwa rulings in Islam: a Malaysian perspective on their role in Muslim consumer behaviour
    Handbook of Islamic Marketing, 2011
  • The constructs mediating religions' influence on buyers and consumers
    Nazlida Muhamad, Dick Mizerski
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2010
  • Exploring Muslim consumers' information sources for fatwa rulings on products and behaviors
    Nazlida Muhamad Hashim, Dick Mizerski
    Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2010
  • Islam and online imagery on malaysian tourist destination websites
    Noor Hazarina Hashim, Jamie Murphy, Nazlida Muhamad Hashim
    Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 2007

RECENT SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS

  • Entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and exploitation in emerging economies
    S Azam, S Hussain, N Muhamad, H Azam
    Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship , 2026
    2026
    Citations: 1
  • Self-concept, emotional value and motivation in intentions to travel abroad: a cross-country study
    N Muhamad, S Islam, BP Wood, ZA Jumani
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 17 (3), 1034-1057 , 2026
    2026
    Citations: 1
  • Embracing Cross-Border Digital Payment in Southeast Asia: Current Development and Future Outlook: Clusters of Future Studies : Corporate Foresight; Past and …
    AA Fauzi, LY Mursita, N Muhamad, ML Sheng
    Future of Economy in Asia: Geopolitical Diplomacy, Technological Revolutions … , 2026
    2026
  • The Transformative Prospects of AI-Powered Virtual Influencers in Digital Consumer Engagement and Marketing Strategies
    MA Salam, VS Leong, N Muhamad
    Cases on Social Media Marketing Engagement Tactics, 251-290 , 2026
    2026
  • Resilience and adaptability in food sustainability
    H Azam, N Muhamad, MS Ab Talib
    Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 100911 , 2025
    2025
    Citations: 1
  • Role of Islamic values and financial attitudes on setting financial goals: an exploratory study of Bruneian Muslims
    H Salleh, N Muhammad, L Abdul Razak, MHA Hj Besar, ...
    Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research , 2025
    2025
    Citations: 5
  • Halal certification of marketing mix focusing on cosmetics
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 16 (5), 1371-1409 , 2025
    2025
    Citations: 22
  • Could Ajka Be the Next Frontier of Halal?: Halal Food
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Innovative Ventures and Strategies in Islamic Business, 169-194 , 2025
    2025
    Citations: 4
  • A review of psychological resilience: paving the path for sustainable consumption
    H Azam, N Muhamad, M Syazwan Ab Talib
    Cogent Business & Management 11 (1), 2408436 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 14
  • Internal marketing and transformational leadership influence on employee customer orientation: a mediation model
    FS Qaisar, N Muhamad, WA Sumardi
    Preprints , 2024
    2024
  • Islamic marketing and circular economy to foster sustainability of product life cycle enhancement
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Strategic Islamic Business and Management: Solutions for Sustainability, 125-141 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 5
  • Co- c reation Practices and Service Outcomes: A Transformative Health Service Framework
    S Islam, N Muhamad, VS Leong, WH Sumardi
    Journal of International Consumer Marketing 36 (4), 383-398 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 5
  • Examining the Consumer Psychological Factors to Pave the Path to Sustainable Food Consumption
    H Azam, N Muhamad, MS Ab Talib
    Proceeding Medan International Conference on Economic and Business 2, 429-440 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 1
  • KAJIAN TAFSIR AHKAM TENTANG PENYELESAIAN SENGKETA EKONOMI SYARIAH (Studi Model Alternatif Penyelesaian Sengketa)
    RH Arifin, M Nazlida
    Journal of Sharia Banking 5 (1), 94-106 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 1
  • National philosophy and religion on corporate social responsibility/public relations initiatives: A case study of Islamic influence in Brunei business system
    VS Leong, Z Sarabia-Panol, N Muhamad
    Asian Journal of Business Ethics 13 (1), 107-135 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 9
  • Developing theoretical lenses for upstream halal businesses
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 15 (1), 192-220 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 56
  • Environmental and Sustainability Indicators
    MA Raza, MA Al-Khasawneh, YZ Alharthi, M Faheem, R Haider, L Kumar
    2024
  • Customer perceived quality of life in provider value cocreation: the mediating role of customer value cocreation and the moderating role of customer emotions
    S Islam, N Muhamad, M Rokonuzzaman, P Iyer, VS Leong
    Journal of Consumer Behaviour 23 (1), 186-202 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 14
  • Development and validation of key antecedents of religious brand attitude: a cross-cultural quantitative analysis using smart PLS
    ZA Jumani, N Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 14 (11), 2771-2797 , 2023
    2023
    Citations: 21
  • Empirical evidence of customers-driven halal supply chain management model from the Quranic verse
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Proceedings of International Conference on Economics Business and Government … , 2023
    2023
    Citations: 3

MOST CITED SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS

  • The Constructs Mediating Religions’ Influence on Buyers and Consumers.
    N Muhamad, D Mizerski
    Australia and New Zealand Marketing Conference 2008, Marketing: Shifting the … , 2008
    2008
    Citations: 318
  • Islam and online imagery on Malaysian tourist destination websites
    NH Hashim, J Murphy, NM Hashim
    Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (3), 1082-1102 , 2007
    2007
    Citations: 226
  • The effects of following Islam in decisions about taboo products
    N Muhamad, D Mizerski
    Psychology & Marketing 30 (4), 357-371 , 2013
    2013
    Citations: 140
  • The role of religious motivation in an international consumer boycott
    N Muhamad, M Khamarudin, WI Mohd Fauzi
    British Food Journal, https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-02-2018-0118 , 2018
    2018
    Citations: 117
  • Does the country of origin of a halal logo matter? The case of packaged food purchases
    N Muhamad, VS Leong, N Md-Isa
    Review of International Business and Strategy 27 (4), pp. 480-500 , 2017
    2017
    Citations: 106
  • Consumer Knowledge and Religious Rulings on products: Young Muslim Consumers’ Perspectives
    N Muhamad, VS Leong, D Mizerski
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 17 (1) , 2016
    2016
    Citations: 106
  • Internal Marketing: A Review and Future Research Agenda
    FS Qaisar, N Muhamad
    Asia Pacific Business Review , 2021
    2021
    Citations: 102
  • Measuring religiosity among Muslim consumers: observations and recommendations
    MT Salam, N Muhamad, VS Leong
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 10 (2), pp. 633-652 , 2019
    2019
    Citations: 84
  • Exploring Muslim consumers' information sources for fatwa rulings on products and behaviors
    N Muhamad Hashim, D Mizerski
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 1 (1), 37-50 , 2010
    2010
    Citations: 83
  • Challenges of halal standards and halal certification for Islamic marketing
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Muslim Business and Economics Review 2 (1), 105-124 , 2023
    2023
    Citations: 72
  • Developing theoretical lenses for upstream halal businesses
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 15 (1), 192-220 , 2024
    2024
    Citations: 56
  • Corporate image as an enabler of customer retention
    VS Leong, DM Hj Ahady, N Muhamad
    International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences 14 (3), 486-503 , 2022
    2022
    Citations: 35
  • What Motivate Muslim consumer to patronage Islamic Based–Retail Store?
    R Mohd Fauzi, W., Muhamad, N., Mohd Mokhtar, S. S. & Zain Yusoff
    International Review of Management and Marketing 6 (S2), 1-5 , 2016
    2016
    Citations: 35
  • Patient-centred communication: An extension of the HCAHPS survey
    S Islam, N Muhamad
    Benchmarking: an International Journal , 2021
    2021
    Citations: 33
  • Healthcare quality for Muslims: TCCM and TSR frameworks analyses
    S Islam, N Muhamad, VS Leong
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 14 (3), 775-798 , 2023
    2023
    Citations: 28
  • Brunei Darussalam: Halal Meat and Meat Product Processing
    AM Khalid, M Masri, N Muhamad, WL Pang
    Reducing Unnecessary Burden In ASEAN: Country Studies, 89-117 , 2018
    2018
    Citations: 28
  • Consumer ethnocentrism: The relationship with domestic products evaluation and buying preferences
    N Muhamad, RC Razak
    International Journal of Management Studies 11, 29 , 2004
    2004
    Citations: 28
  • Customer-perceived service wellbeing in a transformative framework: Research propositions in the area of health services
    S islam, N Muhamad, WH Sumardi
    International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing , 2021
    2021
    Citations: 27
  • Muslim consumers' motivation towards Islam and their cognitive processing of performing taboo behaviors
    N Muhamad
    University of Western Australia , 2008
    2008
    Citations: 26
  • Halal certification of marketing mix focusing on cosmetics
    MM Islam, MS Ab Talib, N Muhamad
    Journal of Islamic Marketing 16 (5), 1371-1409 , 2025
    2025
    Citations: 22