A Review of the Internet of Things (IoT) Landscape: Technologies, Applications, and Open Challenges Sidna Jeddou, Luis Diez, Amine Baina, Najid Abdellah, Ramón Agüero Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2026 The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a large‐scale ecosystem that integrates sensing, communication, and computation across diverse application domains. Its deployment spans smart homes, wearable devices, industrial automation, and smart cities, where heterogeneous devices are required to operate under strict performance, reliability, and resource constraints. This paper presents a comprehensive review of IoT systems, with a particular focus on architectural models, application domains, communication technologies, signal processing techniques, and deployment challenges. Rather than providing a high‐level overview, the paper examines how architectural design choices, communication mechanisms, and signal processing strategies jointly influence overall system performance. Key challenges—including availability, reliability, mobility support, scalability, interoperability, energy efficiency, security, and privacy—are analyzed from a system‐level perspective. Unlike existing surveys that address isolated aspects of IoT, this work emphasizes cross‐layer interdependencies, highlighting how constraints at one layer propagate to others. The objective is not to propose new solutions but to consolidate existing research, clarify persistent limitations in current IoT deployments, and identify future research directions toward more robust and efficient IoT systems.
Optimizing QoS MAC Scheduling in 5G NR: A Lyapunov Approach Evaluated With XR Traffic Neco Villegas, Ana Larrañaga, Luis Diez, Katerina Koutlia, Sandra Lagén, Ramón Agüero IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 2026 5G and beyond technologies are designed to convey multiple QoS requirements coming from highly heterogeneous services. In this regard, 5G extends the QoS definition of previous technologies. In order to fulfill the requirements of new services, it is necessary to develop resource management solutions that effectively and efficiently translate them to usage of resources. Therefore, MAC schedulers are to be designed to accommodate the demands of emerging applications with stringent QoS requirements, such as XR. In this work, we introduce a Lyapunov-based MAC scheduler designed to appropriately tackle coexisting heterogeneous QoS flows. The proposed approach allows the implementation of policies that explicitly consider the QoS requirements, as well as an efficient use of allocated resources. The results obtained through extensive experiments over the ns-3 5G-LENA simulator demonstrate that our scheduler guarantees the required time-average bit rate for every QoS flow at every time window, while ensuring the stability of traffic queues for all users.
ISAC-Assisted DRL for Dynamic MAC Scheduler Reconfiguration in O-RAN Neco Villegas, Juan Luis Herrera, Luis Diez, Domenico Scotece, Luca Foschini, Ramón Agüero IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society, 2026 This paper introduces reconfiguration mechanisms for a 5th Generation (5G) Medium Access Control (MAC) scheduler, which uses Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) and is deployed as an <italic>xApp</italic> within the RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) framework. The objective is to optimize the allocation of radio resources in 5G networks, seeking to meet Quality of Service (QoS) requirements while minimizing resource consumption. To this end, we propose the dynamic adjustment of configurable parameters in a Lyapunov-based scheduler, which addresses the challenges posed by the highly dynamic network environment, and the need to meet multiple QoS objectives. The DRL agent dynamically reconfigures the scheduling by leveraging Integrated Sensing and Communications (ISAC)-provided sensing data alongside conventional communication metrics. Exploiting the adaptability of DRL, our solution can effectively respond to fluctuating network conditions, thereby continuously enhancing scheduling decisions in real time. The proposal is evaluated through comprehensive simulations conducted over ns-3 5G-LENA, which demonstrate notable improvements in QoS performance and resource efficiency. In the analyzed scenarios, our proposed scheduling solution achieves a 30% reduction in radio resource utilization while maintaining full compliance with QoS requirements. These results highlight the great potential of exploiting DRL and sensing data to optimize MAC scheduling in modern wireless communication systems, offering a scalable and adaptive solution for 5G and future 6G networks.
Evaluating Fronthaul Network Performance Under the O-RAN Paradigm: A Novel Methodology Based on Queuing Theory Fátima Khan, Óscar Gil, Luis Diez, Elena Serna Santiago, Luis M. Contreras, Ramón Agüero IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 2026 Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) fosters a new networking paradigm that supports flexible and open architectures, while enabling the functional disaggregation of traditional, monolithic, base stations. Specifically, the Lower-Layer Split (LLS) option 7.2x divides the PHY layer into Low-PHY at Open -Radio Unit (O-RU) and High-PHY at Open -Distributed Unit (O-DU), leveraging the so-called open fronthaul network, which imposes stringent latency requirements. In this work, we introduce and thoroughly examine the time window relationships that define the latency budget allocated to the open fronthaul network. Additionally, we propose a novel methodology to analyze the delay experienced by a realistic traffic pattern over a spine-leaf topology, accounting for various O-DU locations and site pools. To address the increased traffic load introduced by the fronthaul, we present a theoretical model to characterize the average delay across different priority levels when open fronthaul traffic coexists with flows from other Radio Access Technologies (RATs). This model is then validated and broadened through ns-3 simulations. Our findings show the applicability of the proposed methodology, which could be exploited by network operators in the planning phase, evincing its suitability to obtain benchmark delay values, offering a reliable tool for performance evaluation in open fronthaul networks.
Analysis of different functional split options for XR traffic in 5G-LENA Ana Larrañaga-Zumeta, Neco Villegas, Katerina Koutlia, Luis Diez, Ramón Agüero, Sandra Lagén Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 2025 Virtualized Radio Access Networks (vRAN) allow the disaggregation of the RAN protocol stack into different network units. This disaggregation depends on the selected Functional Split (FS), ranging from Option 1 to Option 8. The possible combination of this virtualization paradigm with different FS configurations could enhance the agility, flexibility, and scalability of 5G and beyond networks. Several studies exploring FSs use open-source platforms such as srsRAN, which provide full-stack 4G and 5G RAN software. However, these platforms have limitations for large-scale network analysis and usually require hardware for realistic testing. In contrast, system-level simulators such as ns-3 5G-LENA accurately model key 5G RAN functionalities and provide a flexible, scalable, and entirely software-based environment to implement, test, and evaluate a wide range of features. Based on the above, in this work we present a software-based model for the ns-3 5G-LENA simulator that allows simulating various FS options. We study and evaluate these FS options, specifically Options 6, 7.3, 7.2, and 7.1. Moreover, we analyze their impact on the end-to-end system performance using eXtended Reality (XR) traffic and under diverse network conditions. Our analysis shows that an appropriate FS selection can improve overall performance, helping the system more effectively handle XR traffic demands across different network conditions. Specifically, when Fronthaul (FH) and bandwidth are not limiting, all FS configurations yield similar throughput and latency, with XR delays mostly below 11 ms and data rates closely matching the offered load. Under FH constraints, lower FSs (e.g., Options 6 or 7.3) are preferable due to large, bursty XR packets. Otherwise, for standardized Open RAN (O-RAN) 7.2 or 7.1 FSs, delays may exceed 50 ms and data rates degrade, significantly affecting XR traffic performance. This work provides the research community with an accessible tool for studying FSs in realistic 5G environments.
On the performance of Zenoh in Industrial IoT Scenarios Miguel Barón, Luis Diez, Mihail Zverev, José R. Juárez, Ramón Agüero Ad Hoc Networks, 2025 Robust and efficient communication frameworks have become essential for the advancement of manufacturing and industrial processes in the era of Industry 4.0. This paper presents a comprehensive performance analysis of Eclipse Zenoh, a promising solution for the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). The analysis is conducted using a real testbed built with Raspberry Pi devices, comparing Eclipse Zenoh’s performance against the widely used Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol. The study assesses Eclipse Zenoh’s capabilities in terms of latency, as well as its reliability and congestion control mechanisms over various network topologies, using both Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The results indicate that Eclipse Zenoh offers significant advantages in specific scenarios, making it a compelling choice for IIoT applications. Additionally, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of Eclipse Zenoh’s underlying principles and its communication capabilities, positioning it as a versatile and efficient solution for modern industrial environments. • Study of Eclipse Zenoh’s underlying principles. • Latency comparative analysis of Eclipse Zenoh and MQTT. • Evaluation of Eclipse Zenoh’s reliability and congestion control mechanisms over TCP and UDP.
Security Risks in O-RAN: Vulnerabilities and Mitigation Countermeasures Johnny Choque, Alberto E. García, Luis Diez, Ramón Agüero Mswim 2025 27th International Conference on Modeling Analysis and Simulation of Wireless and Mobile Systems, 2025 Disaggregated and open radio access network architectures offer benefits such as enhanced interoperability, improved coordination between nodes, and cost reduction; however, they also introduce new security challenges related to open interfaces and distributed control mechanisms. This work focuses on analyzing vulnerabilities in one of the protocols used in these interfaces—SCTP—which facilitates communication with Radio Intelligent Controllers (RIC). The analysis centers on two specific attacks: denial of service and identity spoofing. Both attacks have been implemented and experimentally validated on the FlexRIC platform within the O-RAN architecture framework, contrasting with the predominantly theoretical approaches found in the literature. Based on these experiments, a critical evaluation of various security solutions proposed for SCTP is conducted. While some of these solutions offer partial mitigation capabilities, they present structural, operational, and compatibility limitations that affect their overall effectiveness. These findings underscore the need to adopt more modern and efficient transport protocols capable of natively integrating adequate security functions for O-RAN environments.
On the delay of O-RAN Fronthaul: A methodology based on Generalized Jackson Networks Fátima Khan, Óscar Gil, Luis Diez, Elena Serna, Ramón Agüero Proceedings IEEE Global Communications Conference Globecom, 2025 The Open-Fronthaul (O-FH) is a Time Sensitive Network (TSN) segment within the Open-RAN (O-RAN) architecture, where the legacy base station is disaggregated following the 7.2x functional split. One of the strategic objectives sought by network operators is to foster the centralization of the Open - Distributed Unit (O-DU), to serve multiple remote sites. Hence, ensuring an accurately modeling of the fronthaul performance becomes critical, due to its stringent timing requirements. In this work, we propose a novel modeling methodology, based on Generalized Jackson Networks (GJN), to derive key performance metrics such as waiting time and utilization. Additionally, we apply Kingman’s approximation to evaluate delay percentiles under high traffic load conditions. This analytical method allows for fast and scalable performance evaluation, avoiding the need for extensive packet-level simulations, which become computationally prohibitive as traffic load steadily increases. Our results evince that under sensible operating situations, the proposed approach yields rather precise results, providing an upper performance bound.
An optimization-as-a-service platform for 6G exploiting network digital twins Oriol Sallent, José-Manuel Martínez-Caro, Javier Baliosian, Luis Diez, Luis M. Contreras, Jordi Pérez-Romero, Juan Luis Gorricho, Matías Richart, Ramón Agüero, Joan Serrat, Pablo Pavón-Mariño, Irene Vilà Digital Twins for 6g Fundamental Theory Technology and Applications, 2024
Exploiting a Network Digital Twin to optimize B5G networks management. The OPTIMAIX approach L. Diez, R. Agüero, J. Pérez-Romero, J. L. Gorricho, O. Sallent, J. Serrat, E. Fernández, J. Moreno, P. Pavon, I. González, A. Santiago, M. Richart, J. Baliosian, A. Muñiz, L.M. Contreras 2024 IEEE International Mediterranean Conference on Communications and Networking Meditcom 2024, 2024
Seamless Integration of Efficient 6G Wireless Technologies for Communication and Sensing Enabling Ecosystems Jesús Gutiérrez, Vladica Sark, Mert Özates, Anna Tzanakaki, Markos Anastasopoulos, Valerio Frascolla, Ioanna Mesogiti, Elina Theodoropoulou, George Lyberopoulos, Luis Diez, Ramón Agüero, Ignacio Santamaría, Padmanava Sen, Simon Pryor, Shahid Mumtaz, Salvatore Pontarelli, Federico Trombetti, Novella Bartolini, Eduard Jorswieck, Xi Ding, Navid Nikaein IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, 2024
Flexible Priority-based Stream Schedulers in QUIC Fátima Fernández, Mihail Zverev, Luis Diez, José R. Juárez, Anna Brunstrom, Ramón Agüero PE Wasun 2023 Proceedings of the International ACM Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Wireless Ad Hoc Sensor and Ubiquitous Networks, 2023
Realistic Assessment of Transport Protocols Performance over LEO-based Communications Cristina Hervella, Luis Diez, Fátima Fernández, Néstor J. Hernández Marcano, Rune Hylsberg Jacobsen, Ramón Agüero PE Wasun 2022 Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Wireless Ad Hoc Sensor and Ubiquitous Networks, 2022
Learning congestion over millimeter-wave channels Luis Diez, Ramon Aguero, Alfonso Fernandez, Yasir Zaki, Muhammad Khan International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing Networking and Communications, 2020
Learningcity: Knowledge generation for smart cities Dimitrios Amaxilatis, Georgios Mylonas, Evangelos Theodoridis, Luis Diez, Katerina Deligiannidou Eai Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing, 2020
Learning congestion state for mmWave channels Talal Ahmad, Shiva R. Iyer, Luis Diez, Yasir Zaki, Ramón Agüero, Lakshminarayanan Subramanian Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking MOBICOM, 2019
Exploiting the DASH framework to promote a dynamic transport selection for video streaming over LTE networks Luis Diez, Ramon Aguero, Joel Penhoat, Emile Stephan, Fabien Heliot Proceedings 15th IEEE International Conference on Computer and Information Technology CIT 2015 14th IEEE International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Communications Iucc 2015 13th IEEE International Conference on Dependable Autonomic and Secure Computing Dasc 2015 and 13th IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Intelligence and Computing Picom 2015, 2015
ISAC-Assisted DRL for Dynamic MAC Scheduler Reconfiguration in O-RAN N Villegas, JL Herrera, L Diez, D Scotece, L Foschini, R Agüero IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society , 2026 2026
IoT Application Protocols: A Survey on Zenoh M Barón, L Diez, R Torrego, X Eguiluz, R Agüero Internet of Things, 101960 , 2026 2026
A Review of the Internet of Things (IoT) Landscape: Technologies, Applications, and Open Challenges S Jeddou, L Diez, A Baina, N Abdellah, R Agüero Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2026 (1), 6657578 , 2026 2026
Evaluating Fronthaul Network Performance Under the O-RAN Paradigm: A Novel Methodology Based on Queuing Theory F Khan, Ó Gil, L Diez, ES Santiago, LM Contreras, R Agüero IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management 23, 1723-1741 , 2025 2025
Lyapunov-Based PDU Set-Aware Scheduling for XR Traffic in 5G-Advanced Networks N Villegas, A Larrañaga-Zumeta, L Diez, K Koutlia, S Lagén, R Agüero GLOBECOM 2025-2025 IEEE Global Communications Conference, 5526-5531 , 2025 2025
On the delay of O-RAN Fronthaul: A methodology based on Generalized Jackson Networks F Khan, Ó Gil, L Diez, E Serna, R Agüero GLOBECOM 2025-2025 IEEE Global Communications Conference, 2348-2353 , 2025 2025
A2-b4-Acoustophoresis on microfluidic chips made of polymers and glass: experimental comparison E De los Reyes, I González, L Díez, A Pinto Lectures, 28-31 , 2025 2025
Optimizing QoS MAC Scheduling in 5G NR: A Lyapunov Approach Evaluated With XR Traffic N Villegas, A Larrañaga, L Diez, K Koutlia, S Lagén, R Agüero IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management 23, 910-924 , 2025 2025 Citations: 1
Comparing Control Theory and Deep Reinforcement Learning techniques for decentralized task offloading in the edge–cloud continuum G Nieto, N Villegas, L Diez, I De La Iglesia, U Lopez-Novoa, C Perfecto, ... Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 144, 103170 , 2025 2025 Citations: 1
Security Risks in O-RAN: Vulnerabilities and Mitigation Countermeasures J Choque, AE García, L Diez, R Agüero 2025 International Conference on Modeling, Analysis and Simulation of … , 2025 2025
A Software Architecture for Seamless Simulated to Real Testbed Transition for O-RAN AI JL Herrera, N Villegas, L Diez, D Scotece, L Foschini, R Agüero 2025 16th International Conference on Network of the Future (NoF), 151-158 , 2025 2025
Analysis of different functional split options for XR traffic in 5G-LENA A Larrañaga-Zumeta, N Villegas, K Koutlia, L Diez, R Agüero, S Lagén Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 103211 , 2025 2025
A comprehensive AI-based digital twin model for residential hydrogen-based energy systems LR de Lope, VM Maestre, L Diez, A Ortiz, R Agüero, I Ortiz IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society , 2025 2025 Citations: 2
End-to-End Delay Analysis in Disaggregated O-RAN Fronthaul Networks F Khan, Ó Gil, L Diez, E Serna, LM Contreras, R Agüero ICC 2025-IEEE International Conference on Communications, 5035-5040 , 2025 2025
DRL-Based Dynamic MAC Scheduler Reconfiguration in O-RAN N Villegas, JL Herrera, L Diez, D Scotece, L Foschini, R Agüero ICC 2025-IEEE International Conference on Communications, 5023-5028 , 2025 2025 Citations: 4
On the performance of zenoh in industrial iot scenarios M Baron, L Diez, M Zverev, JR Juarez, R Agüero Ad Hoc Networks 170, 103784 , 2025 2025 Citations: 10
Novel Fronthaul Control Method to Address the Fronthaul/Air Interface Tradeoff A Larrañaga-Zumeta, N Villegas, K Koutlia, L Diez, R Agüero, S Lagín 2025 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), 1-6 , 2025 2025
Modelado e Implementación de un problema de Virtual Network Embedding en redes O-RAN D Jaramillo, L Diez, RA Calvo XVII Jornadas de Ingeniería Telemática: Actas de las XVII Jornadas de … , 2025 2025
La ingeniería telemática en la economía circular: Digitalización de una planta de reciclado de CO2 LR de Lope, JC Ollachica, L Diez, RA Calvo XVII Jornadas de Ingeniería Telemática: Actas de las XVII Jornadas de … , 2025 2025
Trafico de sensado en la interfaz E2: integración de nodos radio 6G en O-RAN F Khan, L Diez, J Gutiérrez, RA Calvo XVII Jornadas de Ingeniería Telemática: Actas de las XVII Jornadas de … , 2025 2025
MOST CITED SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS
Smart city IoT services creation through large-scale collaboration F Cirillo, D Gómez, L Diez, IE Maestro, TBJ Gilbert, R Akhavan IEEE Internet of Things Journal 7 (6), 5267-5275 , 2020 2020 Citations: 209
Co-creating the cities of the future V Gutiérrez, E Theodoridis, G Mylonas, F Shi, U Adeel, L Diez, ... Sensors 16 (11), 1971 , 2016 2016 Citations: 71
An identity framework for providing access to FIWARE OAuth 2.0-based services according to the eIDAS European regulation Á Alonso, A Pozo, J Choque, G Bueno, J Salvachúa, L Diez, J Marín, ... Ieee Access 7, 88435-88449 , 2019 2019 Citations: 48
On the queuing delay of time-varying channels in low earth orbit satellite constellations NJH Marcano, L Diez, RA Calvo, RH Jacobsen IEEE Access 9, 87378-87390 , 2021 2021 Citations: 36
Advancing experimentation-as-a-service through urban IoT experiments D Amaxilatis, D Boldt, J Choque, L Diez, E Gandrille, S Kartakis, ... IEEE Internet of Things Journal 6 (2), 2563-2572 , 2018 2018 Citations: 32
LaSR: A supple multi-connectivity scheduler for multi-RAT OFDMA systems L Diez, A Garcia-Saavedra, V Valls, X Li, X Costa-Perez, R Agüero IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing 19 (3), 624-639 , 2018 2018 Citations: 30
Electromagnetic field assessment as a smart city service: The SmartSantander use-case L Diez, R Agüero, L Muñoz Sensors 17 (6), 1250 , 2017 2017 Citations: 28
Flexible functional split and fronthaul delay: A queuing-based model L Diez, AM Alba, W Kellerer, R Aguero IEEE Access 9, 151049-151066 , 2021 2021 Citations: 23
Joint route selection and split level management for 5G C-RAN CC Erazo-Agredo, M Garza-Fabre, RA Calvo, L Diez, J Serrat, ... IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management 18 (4), 4616-4638 , 2021 2021 Citations: 22
EMF-aware cell selection in heterogeneous cellular networks A De Domenico, LF Diez, R Aguero, D Kténas, V Savin IEEE Communications Letters 19 (2), 271-274 , 2014 2014 Citations: 22
Understanding the performance of flexible functional split in 5G vRAN controllers: A Markov chain-based model L Diez, C Hervella, R Agüero IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management 18 (1), 456-468 , 2020 2020 Citations: 21
Managing pervasive sensing campaigns via an experimentation-as-a-service platform for smart cities D Amaxilatis, G Mylonas, L Diez, E Theodoridis, V Gutiérrez, L Muñoz Sensors 18 (7), 2125 , 2018 2018 Citations: 21
Delay and energy consumption of MQTT over QUIC: An empirical characterization using commercial-off-the-shelf devices S Jeddou, F Fernández, L Diez, A Baina, N Abdallah, R Agüero Sensors 22 (10), 3694 , 2022 2022 Citations: 20
Design and integration of a low-complexity dosimeter into the smart city for EMF assessment LF Diez, SM Anwar, LR de Lope, M Le Hennaff, Y Toutain, R Agüero 2014 European Conference on Networks and Communications (EuCNC), 1-5 , 2014 2014 Citations: 18
Extending QoS-aware scheduling in ns-3 5G-LENA: A Lyapunov based solution N Villegas, A Larrañaga, L Diez, K Koutlia, S Lagén, R Agüero Proceedings of the 2024 Workshop on ns-3, 54-59 , 2024 2024 Citations: 17
Experimentation management in the co-created smart-city: Incentivization and citizen engagement J Choque, L Diez, A Medela, L Muñoz Sensors 19 (2), 411 , 2019 2019 Citations: 16
Realistic assessment of transport protocols performance over LEO-based communications F Khan, C Hervella, L Diez, F Fernández, NJH Marcano, RH Jacobsen, ... Computer Networks 236, 110008 , 2023 2023 Citations: 14
Can we exploit machine learning to predict congestion over mmWave 5G channels? L Diez, A Fernández, M Khan, Y Zaki, R Agüero Applied Sciences 10 (18), 6164 , 2020 2020 Citations: 12
Atomic Services: sustainable ecosystem of smart city services through pan-European collaboration F Cirillo, D Straeten, D Gomez, J Gato, L Diez, IE Maestro, R Akhavan 2019 Global IoT Summit (GIoTS), 1-7 , 2019 2019 Citations: 12
Enteritis eosinofílica complicada A Cascón, P Talavera, M García-Calvo, L Díez, AJ Torres, JL Balibrea, ... Cirugía Española 69 (5), 501-503 , 2001 2001 Citations: 12