A Review on Efficient and Scalable Graph-Based Clustering Algorithms for Protein Complex Identification in PPI Networks Sabyasachi Patra, Tushar Ranjan Sahoo Proteins Structure Function and Bioinformatics, 2026 Network clustering is employed in bioinformatics and data mining studies to investigate the structural and functional properties of protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks. In multiple studies over the past two decades, network clustering has proven valuable for uncovering functional modules and elucidating the functions of previously undiscovered proteins. Protein complexes are vital cellular components that play a crucial role in generating biological activity. Experimental techniques have inherent limitations in inferring protein complexes. Given these constraints, numerous computational methods have emerged over the past decade for predicting protein complexes. Typically, these methods take the input PPI data and generate predicted protein complexes as output subnetworks. Most of these methods have shown encouraging outcomes in predicting protein complexes. Prediction is challenging for sparse, small, and overlapping complexes. New strategies should include explicit knowledge about the biological characteristics of proteins to increase performance. Furthermore, specific issues should be considered more effectively in the future while developing new complex prediction algorithms. The bioinformatics community has developed various techniques for clustering PPI networks, which we identified, analyzed, and compared in this paper. This review evaluates various graph clustering algorithms for protein complex identification, facilitating the benchmarking of existing methods, identifying limitations, motivating the development of novel computational tools, and ultimately improving biological insight and therapeutic progress. Through the assessment of strengths and limitations, researchers may develop efficient and scalable algorithms designed explicitly for biological data, integrating graph‐based methodologies with machine learning and deep learning approaches. This study is an invaluable tool for new researchers in the area to recognize upcoming trends, including dynamic PPI networks and temporal complex identification.
X-CBNet: An Explainable Effective Deep Learning Framework Based on Spectrograms for Predicting Valvular Disorder using PCG Signals Subham Kumar Padhy, Anjali Mohapatra, Sabyasachi Patra Journal of Transformative Technologies and Sustainable Development, 2025 Valvular Heart Disease (VHD), caused by malfunctioning heart valves, poses significant diagnostic challenges due to the complexity of heart sound patterns and variability in clinical presentations. Traditional auscultation methods are subjective, and existing automated models often function as black boxes, offering limited insight into the reasoning behind predictions. Therefore, there is a pressing need for accurate, interpretable, and multi-class diagnostic tools to aid clinicians in early and reliable detection of VHD using phonocardiogram (PCG) signals. X-CBNet, a convolutional neural network (CNN) followed by a bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM) network framework, is employed in this research to harness deep learning’s capability to achieve high diagnostic accuracy while ensuring interpretability through explainable AI methods. Melspectrograms are used to capture essential features of the phonocardiograms. The proposed model is designed as a five-class classifier distinguishing between aortic stenosis, mitral stenosis, mitral regurgitation, mitral valve prolapse, and normal heart sounds. Gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) is utilized for explainability, generating heatmaps that visualize model decision-making. The proposed X-CBNet model achieved an overall accuracy of 99.15%. Per-class accuracies are: Normal 99.15%, Aortic Stenosis 98.43%, Mitral Regurgitation 98.79%, Mitral Stenosis 99.58%, and Mitral Valve Prolapse 99.80%. The model also achieved a macro-average AUC of 0.99 and a micro-average AUC of 0.98, while maintaining a misclassification rate of less than 1%. The Grad-CAM heatmaps further validate model decisions by highlighting class-discriminative features. The robust performance demonstrates that the proposed model is suitable for real-time clinical applications, offering enhanced transparency through the integration of explainable AI.