Formulation Strategies for Fungal Biocontrol of Gastrointestinal Helminths in Domestic Animals and Plant-Parasitic Nematodes: A Review Júlia dos Santos Fonseca, Tábata Alves do Carmo, Bianca de Oliveira Botelho Vital, Thalita Suelen Avelar Monteiro, Huarlen Marcio Balbino, et al. Pathogens, 2026 Although microbial biopesticides are expanding rapidly, transforming nematophagous fungi into consistent and shelf-stable products remains a challenge. A key limitation is that fungal propagules must remain viable throughout production, storage, and delivery to ensure their efficacy in the field. This review examines formulation strategies that improve the stability, deployment, and performance of fungal biocontrol agents against gastrointestinal helminths in domestic animals and plant-parasitic nematodes. In veterinary systems, predatory fungi such as Duddingtonia flagrans primarily target infective larvae after surviving gastrointestinal transit and germination in feces. In contrast, ovicidal fungi, including Pochonia chlamydosporia, Purpureocillium lilacinum, Trichoderma spp., and Mucor spp., primarily act against helminth eggs and coccidian oocysts. This functional complementarity highlights the potential of combined fungal formulations to improve their control efficacy. We also discuss the currently available D. flagrans-based commercial products, BioWorma® and Bioverm®, and the practical challenges associated with dosing, administration, and farm adoption. In agriculture, we show that the Brazilian market is dominated by solid fungal nematicides designed to reduce water activity and prolong shelf life, although liquid- and oil-based systems remain relevant for specific applications. Across both sectors, the review identified formulation design, rather than fungal species alone, as a critical determinant of product performance. Emerging advances, such as microencapsulation, UV-protective matrices, improved seed-coating biopolymers, nanobiotechnology, and fungal-derived bioactive products, indicate that future progress will depend on target-oriented formulations capable of increasing stability, controlled release, and resilience under environmentally variable conditions, including those imposed by climate change.
Ecological Frameworks of Pathogen–Pathogen and Pathogen–Microbiome Interactions Within the Tick Holobiont Elianne Piloto-Sardiñas, Islay Rodríguez, Huarrisson Azevedo Santos, Patrícia Gonzaga Paulino, Belkis Corona-González, et al. Pathogens, 2026 Ticks harbor complex microbial communities composed of symbionts, commensals, and tick-borne pathogens (TBPs). Together, these microorganisms form the tick holobiont. Within this system, the tick’s physiological architecture structures microbial communities by distributing microorganisms across distinct tissues. This compartmentalization creates spatially distinct ecological niches, which in turn shape how microbial communities assemble and interact. In this review, we integrate ecological theory with current knowledge of tick microbiome research to examine how pathogen–pathogen and pathogen–microbiome interactions emerge within these tissue-structured microbial communities. We first outline how baseline ecological filters, including tick species, developmental stage, tissue identity, vertical transmission, and environmental context, shape the microbiome configuration through community assembly processes. We then examined how TBPs, as high-impact colonizers, can further modify microbial networks by altering host-mediated selective pressures, influencing interaction topology, and reshaping community stability. Based on these observations, we propose a dual selective pressure framework in which (i) baseline ecological structuring processes and (ii) pathogen-associated selective pressures interact to determine the microbial network configuration and functional outcomes within the tick holobiont. These interacting forces may drive shifts in diversity, modularity, keystone taxa emergence, and network resilience, ultimately influencing vector competence. This review frames the microbial communities within the tick holobiont as spatially structured ecological systems shaped by multilevel selective pressures. This conceptual foundation provides a coherent framework for understanding microbial interactions in arthropod vectors and highlights avenues for mechanistic research and microbiome-based strategies to mitigate tick-borne diseases.
Effects of Eimeria Challenge and Monensin Supplementation on Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, and Intestinal Health of Broilers Pamella Pryscila de Alvarenga Bissoli Maciel de Lima, José Andrew de Lira Barbosa, Giulia Cancian Vieira, Júlia de Castro Campos Pereira, Mateus Tinelli Menegalle, et al. Poultry, 2026 This study aimed to evaluate the performance, nutrient digestibility, intestinal health, and duodenum gene expression of broilers challenged with Eimeria spp. supplemented with or without monensin sodium. A total of 144 male chicks were used, distributed in a completely randomized design with three treatments: unchallenged control (UN), challenged control (CC), and CC + 100 mg/kg of monensin sodium (MON). Six replicates of eight birds each were used. At 14 days of age, the challenged groups were inoculated with a mixture of Eimeria oocysts, 12,500 E. maxima, 62,500 E. acervulina, and 12,500 E. tenella oocysts/chick. Coccidial challenge impaired growth performance and nutrient digestibility and induced intestinal damage, as evidenced by reduced body weight gain and feed intake (p < 0.001), lower apparent digestibility coefficients (p < 0.001), and altered intestinal morphometry and ISI score in the jejunum and cecum (p < 0.001). Monensin supplementation partially alleviated these negative effects, improving performance and nutrient digestibility (p < 0.001) and delaying oocyst excretion (p = 0.006) when compared with the CC group. However, the duodenal expression of tight junction-related genes, as well as intestinal integrity and health parameters, remained impaired despite monensin supplementation. It is concluded that monensin preserves nutrient digestibility and attenuates performance loss in broilers challenged with Eimeria spp. but not reduced intestinal damage.
Are Babesia vogeli genotypes associated with Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Rhipicephalus linnaei distribution? Vinícius Baggio-Souza, Laura Berger, Rafaela Mallmann-Bohn, Adeyldes Oliveira Reis, Lay Greco Basilio, et al. Parasites and Vectors, 2025 Background In South America, Babesia vogeli is the primary causative agent of canine babesiosis, and brown dog ticks (Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato) are the vectors. The recent separation of brown dog ticks into Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu stricto (“temperate lineage”) and Rhipicephalus linnaei (“tropical lineage”) raised suspicions of the possibility of two distinct Babesia genotypes or even species being transmitted by these tick species. Methods To investigate this hypothesis, dog blood samples from Brazil (eight states), Paraguay, and Uruguay were collected to determine the genetic diversity of B. vogeli in South America. The samples were collected from temperate regions (southern Brazil and Uruguay), where the putative vector is R. sanguineus, and from the tropical areas (southeastern, midwestern, northeastern, and northern Brazil and Paraguay), where R. linnaei is the vector. DNA samples from B. vogeli-positive dogs were extracted to amplify the 18S ribosomal RNA, internal transcribed spacers 1 and 2, heat shock protein 70, cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1, cytochrome oxidase c subunit 3, and cytochrome b genes. The sequences obtained were aligned with available B. vogeli sequences in GenBank and other homologous sequences to construct phylogenetic trees, haplotype networks, and matrices. Results Our haplotypic and phylogenetic analyses congruently indicated the existence of one genotype in temperate areas and another in tropical areas, where R. sanguineus and R. linnaei act as vectors, respectively. While the percentage of similarity varied among the evaluated genetic markers, the results indicated a clear differentiation between the B. vogeli genotypes associated with temperate and tropical regions. Conclusions Our data indicate the existence of two B. vogeli genotypes in South America, associated with temperate and tropical areas. This contributes to a better understanding of B. vogeli’s genetic diversity and opens new avenues for researching the ecology and coevolution of B. vogeli genotypes and their tick vectors. Owing to their correlation with the climatic region and the historical nomenclature of their vectors, we suggest the nomenclature of “temperate” and “tropical” B. vogeli genotypes. Graphical Abstract
Isolation, Molecular Characterization and In Vitro Propagation of an Anaplasma platys-Like Bacterium in Tick Cells Erica Rodrigues de Matos, Priscilla Nunes dos Santos, Erich Peter Zweygarth, Talys Henrique Assumpção Jardim, Huarrisson Azevedo Santos, et al. Pathogens, 2025 The family Anaplasmataceae comprises etiological agents of infectious diseases of significant importance. This study aimed to achieve the in vitro isolation and propagation of an Anaplasma sp. using tick-derived cell lines. The study was realized in Seropédica municipality, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Blood smears from a naturally infected bovine revealed cytoplasmic inclusions in blood cells. To isolate and propagate the organism, IDE8 and ISE6 tick cell lines derived from Ixodes scapularis were used. Two methods of inoculum preparation were employed: Histopaque® density gradient and platelet-rich plasma separation. Following infection, cells were maintained in L-15B medium without antibiotics at 34 °C, and infection was monitored weekly by Giemsa-stained cytocentrifuge smears. After achieving ≥ 70% infection, bacteria were subcultured and successfully cryopreserved and resuscitated. PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S rDNA, 23S rDNA, rpoB, and groEL genes were performed for molecular characterization. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the isolated strain clustered within the A. platys-like clade. This study reports the successful in vitro isolation, propagation, and cryopreservation of the ‘A. platys-like strain Natal’ bacterium in tick cell lines and provides molecular evidence supporting its phylogenetic classification. These findings contribute to the understanding of genetic variability and host–cell interactions of Anaplasma spp., laying the groundwork for future research.
