A Four-Dimensional Historical Building Defect Information Modeling (HBDIM) Framework Integrating Digital Documentation and Nanomaterial Consolidation for Sustainable Stucco Conservation Ahmad Baik, Amer Habibullah, Ahmed Sallam, Tarek Salah, Mohamed Saleh Sustainability Switzerland, 2026 This study proposes a four-dimensional Historical Building Defect Information Modeling (HBDIM) framework designed to support the documentation, diagnosis, and conservation of deteriorated historic stucco elements. The framework integrates multi-source digital documentation techniques, including terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), high-resolution photogrammetry, and automated total station measurements with laboratory-based material diagnostics to create a unified digital environment for defect detection and conservation assessment. The approach was applied to the Baron Empain Palace in Egypt as a representative case study of complex architectural heritage affected by material deterioration. Within the HBDIM workflow, point cloud processing and defect-oriented information modeling were used to identify and spatially localize deterioration features such as cracking, erosion, and material loss. Laboratory investigations—including computed tomography (CT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)—were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of calcium hydroxide nanoparticle consolidation treatments and to relate microstructural material behavior to spatially mapped defects within the digital model. Mechanical testing demonstrated a significant improvement in material performance, with treated stucco samples exhibiting an average compressive strength increase of approximately 69.06% compared to untreated specimens. The results demonstrate that integrating digital documentation, defect-oriented modeling, and material diagnostics within a four-dimensional framework provides a robust platform for linking geometric deterioration patterns with material-level conservation performance. By embedding diagnostic data and treatment outcomes within a temporally structured digital model, the HBDIM approach supports preventive conservation strategies, long-term monitoring, and data-driven decision-making in sustainable heritage management.
SiO2NPs/Paraloid B-72 Nanocomposite-Based Formulation for Sustainable Restoration and Mitigation of Fungal Deterioration of Sandstone Cultural Heritage Mohamed Hssan Hassan Abdelhafez, Mabrouk Touahmia, Ali Aldersoni, Hassan Ismail, Ahmed Sallam, et al. Sustainability Switzerland, 2026 This study evaluates a SiO2 nanoparticle (SiO2NPs)/Paraloid B-72 nanocomposite as a restorative and antifungal treatment for deteriorated sandstone at the Ptolemaic Temple of Isis, located within a densely populated residential area. The temple stones exhibit structural damage, soiling, and severe microbiological deterioration. Fungal isolates from the sandstone were cultured on PDA medium and identified by ITS region DNA sequencing as Alternaria alternata, Penicillium chrysogenum, and Aspergillus niger. The SiO2NPs and their Paraloid B-72 nanocomposites were synthesized and characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Stone samples, examined before and after treatment via SEM-EDX, TEM, and XRD, were used to assess both conservation performance and compatibility. Laboratory antifungal tests showed that SiO2NPs at 300 ppm exhibited the greatest inhibition of mycelial growth, reaching 91.59% for P. chrysogenum, 90.77% for A. niger, and 85.2% for A. alternata. Mechanical testing demonstrated that treatment with the SiO2NPs/Paraloid B-72 nanocomposite enhanced stone strength, increasing compressive strength from 26.5 MPa to 27.4 MPa. SEM images confirmed excellent, homogeneous dispersion of the nanocomposite on stone grains, forming a coherent coating without pore occlusion. Overall, the SiO2NPs/Paraloid B-72 formulation improved sandstone surface properties while substantially improving short-term mechanical performance and antifungal efficacy, indicating promise for enhancing restoration procedures when combined with established conservation protocols for sandstone architectural heritage.
4D Digital Integration for Nanomaterial-Based Monitoring and Treatment of Bridge Piers Defects Ghazy Abdullah Albaqawy, Mabrouk Touahmia, Mustapha Boukendakdji, Abderrahmane Ouazir, Abdulaziz Mansour, et al. Buildings, 2025 This study presents an innovative 4D digital model that integrates Bridge Information Modeling (BrIM) with several types of data to defect detection in complex bridge structures. The model promotes precise data preparation, navigation, visualization, integration, and monitoring, enabling the identification of defects, like material deterioration, condition changes, and structural clashes in components like trusses. Bridge model provides time-based access to maps, allowing users to explore changes over time and predict future conditions. The integration of time dimension into the 4D model provides dynamic tools for exploring changes over time, allowing for analysis and maintenance planning. Through the use of advanced 4D simulation technology, the study’s effectiveness is in visualizing workflows, identifying constraints, and supporting proactive decision-making in structural management. By incorporating various perspectives and enabling users to interact with detailed visualizations, the model enhances understanding and maintenance practices. This approach advances defect modeling and digitization, supporting automation in defect detection while significantly contributing to the long-term safety and sustainability of bridges. In order to obtain non-destructive images and films of the morphology of the sandstone’s internal structure at the bridge pier in addition to the stone’s grain texture and surface characteristics, this research applied X-ray computed tomography approach (CT scan) and XRF as NDT to the analysis of sandstone.
Improving Mud Brick Durability in Ancient Closed-Box Tombs: A Graphene Oxide Nanoparticle Approach Ahmed Sallam, Ghazy Abdullah Albaqawy, Mabrouk Touahmia, Mustapha Boukendakdji, Mona M. E. Khalil Buildings, 2024 This paper presents a novel concept for significantly enhancing the strength and durability of ancient closed-box tombs. These tombs hold significant philosophical values, and their architecture serves as a valuable data source, providing insights into the cultural stage of the society in which it was constructed. Throughout medieval and modern times, clay bricks remained a prevalent material for tomb construction due to their affordability and design flexibility. However, these structures currently face neglect and weakening, requiring imperative intervention of protection to prevent them from potential deterioration or extinction. The key objective of this research is to explore the potential use of graphene oxide (GO), a novel nanomaterial, as a treatment method to enhance the durability of mud brick tombs in Aswan, Egypt. Samples of mud bricks were examined and characterized using various techniques, including SEM-EDX, TEM, PLM, XRF, XRD, and mechanical properties analysis. The results indicated that GO nanomaterials significantly improve the mechanical properties of mud brick tombs, allowing them to resist more compressive loading and ultimately resulting in more durable and long-lasting structures. By using these innovative materials, effective restoration and preservation of these ancient structures for future generations could be viable. This research has the potential to revolutionize the preservation of closed-box tombs, ensuring these historical landmarks stand longer the test of time.
Four-Dimensional Digital Monitoring and Registering of Historical Architecture for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage Mohamed Saleh Sedek, Mabrouk Touahmia, Ghazy Abdullah Albaqawy, Enamur Latifee, Tarek Mahioub, et al. Buildings, 2024 Preserving cultural heritage through monitoring, registering, and analyzing damage in historical architectural structures presents significant financial and logistical burdens. Developed approaches for monitoring and registering 4D (4-dimensional)-scanned range and raster images of damaged objects were investigated in a case study of historical Baron Palace in Egypt. In the methodology, we first prepared and observed the damaged historical models. The damaged historical models were scanned using a laser scanner at a predetermined date and time. Simultaneously, digital images of the models were captured (by a calibrated digital camera) and stored on a researcher’s tablet device. By observing and comparing the scanned models with the digital images, geometric defects and their extent are identified. Then, the observed data components were detected on the map. Then, damaged statue materials were investigated using system of energy dispersive (SEM; scanning electron microscope, Gemini Zeiss-Ultra 55) and XRF (X-ray fluorescence) spectroscopic analysis to identify the statue’s marble elements, and the results indicate that SEM-EDX and XRF analyses accurately identify major and minor compositions of the damaged statue. Then, the damaged models were registered in two stages. In the registration stages, the corresponding points were determined automatically by detecting the closest points in the clouds and ICP (iterative closest point) algorithm in RiSCAN. The point clouds (of the Palace and damaged statues) gave very detailed resolutions and more realistic images in RiSCAN, but it is a costly program. Finally, the accuracies of the registration tasks were assessed; the standard deviations are within acceptable limits and tend to increase irregularly as the number of polydata observations used in the registration calculations increase.
Geo-Environmental Hazard Assessment of Archaeological Sites and Archaeological Domes—Fatimid Tombs—Aswan, Egypt Mona M. E. Khalil, Safia M. Khodary, Youssef M. Youssef, Mohammad S. Alsubaie, Ahmed Sallam Buildings, 2022 The Fatimid state was established in Egypt in 969 and lasted until the end of the dynasty in 1171. During the Fatimid rule in Egypt, a large set of monuments were erected. A significant portion of these monuments were shrines dedicated to the descendants of the Prophet Muhammed, especially in Aswan. Groundwater rising, at present, has introduced severe deterioration to the ancient earthen mud-brick architecture of the Fatimid tombs in Aswan city (Egypt). However, monitoring the influence of anthropogenic and environmental aspects on the deterioration issues in Fatimid tombs has not yet been considered. To this end, the scope of this pilot study is to investigate the structural stability and weathering vulnerability of the building materials of mud-brick structures in the Fatimid Cemetery before restoration labor. This was achieved using an integration of remote sensing (Landsat 8 and SRTM-DEM) and hydrogeological datasets in the Geographic Information System (GIS), along with a physicochemical and mineralogical analysis of various materials (the bearing soil, wall plasters, and Muqarnas) from the affected cemeteries. The morphological and mineralogical compositions of the collected samples were analytically examined by using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) and CT scan. Moreover, geotechnical studies were conducted for the perched soil water and subsoil, including the analysis of the physiochemical composition and heavy metals using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results of multitemporal analysis of land use/land cover (LULC) changes displayed the growth and appearance of wetlands near the Fatimid tombs area over the last decades, boosting the geo-environmental risks from soil water rising. Furthermore, the detailed analytical investigations of building materials and soil foundations showed that this unique and substantial ancient Islamic archaeological site of Egypt shows weak geotechnical properties, and it is highly sensitive to natural and anthropogenic stressors. This innovative methodology can produce novel recommendations and results to the Ministry of Antiquities in Egypt and the Heritage Commission in Saudi Arabia for the adequate restoration of monuments.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND NANO TREATMENT OF THE SHARIA JUDGE TOMB AT THE FATIMID CEMETERY, ASWAN-EGYPT Orabi, E., Sallam, A. Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies, 2022 : This paper focuses on the environmental hazards affecting the building materials at the Sharia Judge tomb in Aswan, abreast with finding out the appropriate Nano consolidant, to achieve the afore-mentioned purpose; the ambient environmental factors were studied and the deterioration products were noticed, building materials were studied using SEM-EDX, XRD and FTIR. Through SEM investigation; it was found that the plaster layers had a significant deterioration in addition to the spread of gaps, sepa-rations, cracks, and lack of interconnection between the grains. The analyses by EDX and XRD proved that the two layers of the plaster consist of calcium carbonate CaCO 3 and quartz SiO 2 with a percentage of halite NaCl, whitewash from gypsum CaSO 4 .2H 2 O with a percentage of halite. Through FTIR analytical results it was find out the type of organic media used. It turned out that the media was from animal glue. The study aims to consolidate the layers of plaster that suffer from complete or partial separation by applying the consolidation with calcium nano hydroxide mix with TiO 2 nanoparticles in different concentrations to consolidate the layers of the separated plaster on models similar i n composition to the composition of the original plaster layers. The results indicated that the mixture consisting of calcium nano hydroxide
Innovative technique for measurement fingerprint of cracks and strain on the surfaces of the archaeological painting, aswan case study International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 2019
Application of smart nano-composite for consolidation of plaster in roman period at the Dendera Temple, Egypt International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 2019
Studies on the deterioration of coptic mural paintings in the monastery of martyrs and the Luxor temple International Journal of Conservation Science, 2016
RECENT SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS
CT scanning and MATLAB calculations for preservation of Coptic mural paintings in historic Egyptian monasteries A Sallam, S Hemeda, MS Toprak, M Muhammed, M Hassan, A Uheida Scientific Reports 9 (1), 3903 , 2019 2019.0 Citations: 19
Studies on the deterioration of Coptic mural paintings in the monastery of Martyrs and the Luxor temple A Sallam 2016.0 Citations: 9
CONSERVATION SCIENCE A SALLAM, Y ZHAO, M HASSAN, M TOPRAK, M MUHAMMED, ...
MOST CITED SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS
CT scanning and MATLAB calculations for preservation of Coptic mural paintings in historic Egyptian monasteries A Sallam, S Hemeda, MS Toprak, M Muhammed, M Hassan, A Uheida Scientific Reports 9 (1), 3903 , 2019 2019.0 Citations: 19
Studies on the deterioration of Coptic mural paintings in the monastery of Martyrs and the Luxor temple A Sallam 2016.0 Citations: 9
CONSERVATION SCIENCE A SALLAM, Y ZHAO, M HASSAN, M TOPRAK, M MUHAMMED, ...
